Under what conditions can a military officer be held personally accountable?

A military officer can be held personally accountable primarily for giving unlawful orders or violating military law. This is because accountability within the military framework is closely tied to adherence to laws, regulations, and the ethical standards governing military conduct. When an officer issues unlawful orders, they not only undermine the rule of law but may also put their subordinates at risk and compromise mission integrity.

Furthermore, an officer's accountability is heightened when their actions result in unlawful conduct or harm, whether to individuals or to the mission. In contrast, following lawful orders, executing military strategy successfully, or being challenged by civilian authorities—while they may have various implications in a military context—do not intrinsically relate to personal accountability in the same way. This delineation ensures that military personnel understand their responsibilities and the serious consequences of unlawful actions, fostering a culture of lawfulness and ethical decision-making within the ranks.